Fluent Python手册(一) - Go语言中文社区

Fluent Python手册(一)


把函数视为对象:一等函数

把函数视为对象

python函数是对象。

>>> def factorial(n):
        ... '''returns n!'''
        ... return 1 if n < 2 else n * factorial(n-1)
        ...
>>> factorial(42)
1405006117752879898543142606244511569936384000000000
>>> factorial.__doc__  #__doc__ is one of several attributes of function objects.
'returns n!'
>>> type(factorial) *factorial is an instance of the function class.
<class 'function'>

>>> fact = factorial
>>> fact
<function factorial at 0x...>
>>> fact(5)
120
>>> map(factorial, range(11))
<map object at 0x...>
>>> list(map(fact, range(11)))
[1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800]

高阶函数

函数式编程的特点之一是使用高阶函数。接受函数为参数,或者把函数作为结果返回的函数是高阶函数。

例如:根据单词长度给一个列表排序

>>> fruits = ['strawberry', 'fig', 'apple', 'cherry', 'raspberry', 'banana']
>>> sorted(fruits, key=len)
['fig', 'apple', 'cherry', 'banana', 'raspberry', 'strawberry']

例如:根据反向拼写给一个单词列表排序

>>> def reverse(word):
        ... return word[::-1]
>>> reverse('testing')
'gnitset'
>>> sorted(fruits, key=reverse)
['banana', 'apple', 'fig', 'raspberry', 'strawberry', 'cherry']

map、filter和reduce的现代替代品

它们的直接替代品是生成器表达式。

例如:使用reduce和sum计算0~99之和

>>> from functools import reduce
>>> from operator import add
>>> reduce(add, range(100))
4950
>>> sum(range(100))
4950

sum和reduce的通用思想是把某个操作连续应用到序列的元素上,累计之前的结果,把一系列值归约成一个值。all和any也是内置的归约函数。

可调用对象

  • 用户定义的函数 —— 使用def或lambda创建
  • 内置函数 —— 使用C语言(CPython)实现的函数,例如len
  • 内置方法 —— 使用C语言实现的方法,例如dict.get
  • 方法 —— 在类的定义体中定义的函数
  • 类 —— 调用类时会运行类的__new__方法创建一个实例,然后运行__init__方法,初始化实例,最后把实例返回给调用方。
  • 类的实例 —— 如果类定义了__call__方法,那么它的实例可以作为函数调用。
  • 生成器函数 —— 使用yield关键字的函数或方法。

用户定义的可调用类型

只需实现实例方法__call__。

"""
# BEGIN BINGO_DEMO

>>> bingo = BingoCage(range(3))
>>> bingo.pick()
1
>>> bingo()
0
>>> callable(bingo)
True

# END BINGO_DEMO

"""

# BEGIN BINGO

import random

class BingoCage:

    def __init__(self, items):
        self._items = list(items)  # <1>
        random.shuffle(self._items)  # <2>

    def pick(self):  # <3>
        try:
            return self._items.pop()
        except IndexError:
            raise LookupError('pick from empty BingoCage')  # <4>

    def __call__(self):  # <5>
        return self.pick()

# END BINGO

函数内省

和用户定义的常规类一样,函数使用__dict__属性存储赋予它的用户属性。

>>> class C: pass #
>>> obj = C() #
>>> def func(): pass #
>>> sorted(set(dir(func)) - set(dir(obj))) #
['__annotations__', '__call__', '__closure__', '__code__', '__defaults__','__get__', '__globals__', '__kwdefaults__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

获取关于参数的信息

函数对象有个__defaults__属性,它的值一个元组,里面保存着定位参数和关键字参数的默认值。

例如:在指定长度附近阶段字符串的函数

def clip(text, max_len=80):
    """Return text clipped at the last space before or after max_len
    """
    end = None
    if len(text) > max_len:
        space_before = text.rfind(' ', 0, max_len)
        if space_before >= 0:
            end = space_before
        else:
            space_after = text.rfind(' ', max_len)
            if space_after >= 0:
                end = space_after
    if end is None: # no spaces were found
        end = len(text)
    return text[:end].rstrip()

例如:提取关于函数参数的信息

>>> from clip import clip
>>> clip.__defaults__
(80,)
>>> clip.__code__ # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
<code object clip at 0x...>
>>> clip.__code__.co_varnames
('text', 'max_len', 'end', 'space_before', 'space_after')
>>> clip.__code__.co_argcount
2

其实,我们有更好的方式——使用inspect模块

例如:提取函数的签名

>>> from clip import clip
>>> from inspect import signature
>>> sig = signature(clip)
>>> sig # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
<inspect.Signature object at 0x...>
>>> str(sig)
'(text, max_len=80)'
>>> for name, param in sig.parameters.items():
    ... print(param.kind, ':', name, '=', param.default)
    ...
POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD : text = <class 'inspect._empty'>
POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD : max_len = 80

inspect.Signature对象有个bind方法,它可以把任意个参数绑定到签名中的形参上。框架可以使用这个方法在真正调用函数前验证参数。

例如:把tag函数的签名绑定到一个参数字典上

>>> import inspect
>>> sig = inspect.signature(tag)
>>> my_tag = {'name': 'img', 'title': 'Sunset Boulevard',
... 'src': 'sunset.jpg', 'cls': 'framed'}
>>> bound_args = sig.bind(**my_tag)
>>> bound_args
<inspect.BoundArguments object at 0x...>
>>> for name, value in bound_args.arguments.items():
    ... print(name, '=', value)
    ...
name = img
cls = framed
attrs = {'title': 'Sunset Boulevard', 'src': 'sunset.jpg'}
>>> del my_tag['name']
>>> bound_args = sig.bind(**my_tag)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: 'name' parameter lacking default value

函数注解

支持函数式编程的包

operator模块

operator模块为多个算术运算符提供了对应的函数。

例如:使用reduce和operator.mul函数计算阶乘

from functools import reduce
from operator import mul

def fact(n):
    return reduce(mul, range(1, n+1))

operator模块中还有一类函数,能替代从序列中取出元素或读取对象属性的lambda表达式;因此,itemgetter和attrgetter其实会自行构建函数。

例如:使用itemgetter排序一个元组列表

>>> metro_data = [
... ('Tokyo', 'JP', 36.933, (35.689722, 139.691667)),
... ('Delhi NCR', 'IN', 21.935, (28.613889, 77.208889)),
... ('Mexico City', 'MX', 20.142, (19.433333, -99.133333)),
... ('New York-Newark', 'US', 20.104, (40.808611, -74.020386)),
... ('Sao Paulo', 'BR', 19.649, (-23.547778, -46.635833)),
... ]
>>>
>>> from operator import itemgetter
>>> for city in sorted(metro_data, key=itemgetter(1)):
...     print(city)
...
('Sao Paulo', 'BR', 19.649, (-23.547778, -46.635833))
('Delhi NCR', 'IN', 21.935, (28.613889, 77.208889))
('Tokyo', 'JP', 36.933, (35.689722, 139.691667))
('Mexico City', 'MX', 20.142, (19.433333, -99.133333))
('New York-Newark', 'US', 20.104, (40.808611, -74.020386))

itemgetter使用[]运算符,因此它不仅支持序列,还支持映射和任何实现__getitem__方法的类。

attrgetter和itemgetter作用类似,它创建的函数根据名称提取对象的属性。

例如

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> LatLong = namedtuple('LatLong', 'lat long') 
>>> Metropolis = namedtuple('Metropolis', 'name cc pop coord')
>>> metro_areas = [Metropolis(name, cc, pop, LatLong(lat, long)) #
...     for name, cc, pop, (lat, long) in metro_data]
>>> metro_areas[0]
Metropolis(name='Tokyo', cc='JP', pop=36.933, coord=LatLong(lat=35.689722,
long=139.691667))
>>> metro_areas[0].coord.lat #
35.689722
>>> from operator import attrgetter
>>> name_lat = attrgetter('name', 'coord.lat') #
>>>
>>> for city in sorted(metro_areas, key=attrgetter('coord.lat')): #
...     print(name_lat(city)) #
...
('Sao Paulo', -23.547778)
('Mexico City', 19.433333)
('Delhi NCR', 28.613889)
('Tokyo', 35.689722)
('New York-Newark', 40.808611)

methodcaller与之类似,它会自行创建函数。methodcaller创建的函数会在对象上调用参数指定的方法。

例如

>>> from operator import methodcaller
>>> s = 'The time has come'
>>> upcase = methodcaller('upper')
>>> upcase(s)
'THE TIME HAS COME'
>>> hiphenate = methodcaller('replace', ' ', '-')
>>> hiphenate(s)
'The-time-has-come'

使用functools.partial冻结参数

使用functools.patial函数基于一个函数创建一个新的可调用对象,把原函数的某些参数固定。

例如

>>> from operator import mul
>>> from functools import partial
>>> triple = partial(mul, 3)
>>> triple(7)
21
>>> list(map(triple, range(1, 10)))
[3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27]
>>> import unicodedata, functools
>>> nfc = functools.partial(unicodedata.normalize, 'NFC')
>>> s1 = 'café'
>>> s2 = 'cafeu0301'
>>> s1, s2
('café', 'café')
>>> s1 == s2
False
>>> nfc(s1) == nfc(s2)
True

函数装饰器和闭包

(1)装饰器基础知识

装饰器是可调用的对象,其参数是另一个函数。装饰器可能会处理被装饰的函数,然后把它返回,或者将其替换成另一个函数或可调用对象。

例如:装饰器通常把函数替换成另一个函数

>>> def deco(func):
...     def inner():
...         print('running inner()')
...     return inner
...
>>> @deco
... def target():
...     print('running target()')
...
>>> target()
running inner()
>>> target
<function deco.<locals>.inner at 0x10063b598>

装饰器的两大特性是

  • 能把被装饰的函数替换成其他函数
  • 装饰器在加载模块时立即执行

(2)Python何时执行装饰器

装饰器的一个关键特性是,它们在被装饰的函数定义之后立即运行,这通常是在导入时。

例如:registration.py

# BEGIN REGISTRATION

registry = []  # <1>

def register(func):  # <2>
    print('running register(%s)' % func)  # <3>
    registry.append(func)  # <4>
    return func  # <5>

@register  # <6>
def f1():
    print('running f1()')

@register
def f2():
    print('running f2()')

def f3():  # <7>
    print('running f3()')

def main():  # <8>
    print('running main()')
    print('registry ->', registry)
    f1()
    f2()
    f3()

if __name__=='__main__':
    main()  # <9>

$ python3 registration.py
running register(<function f1 at 0x100631bf8>)
running register(<function f2 at 0x100631c80>)
running main()
registry -> [<function f1 at 0x100631bf8>, <function f2 at 0x100631c80>]
running f1()
running f2()
running f3()

如果导入registration.py模块,输出如下

>>> import registration
running register(<function f1 at 0x10063b1e0>)
running register(<function f2 at 0x10063b268>)

(3)使用装饰器改进“策略”模式

# strategy_best4.py
# Strategy pattern -- function-based implementation
# selecting best promotion from list of functions
# registered by a decorator

"""
    >>> joe = Customer('John Doe', 0)
    >>> ann = Customer('Ann Smith', 1100)
    >>> cart = [LineItem('banana', 4, .5),
    ...         LineItem('apple', 10, 1.5),
    ...         LineItem('watermellon', 5, 5.0)]
    >>> Order(joe, cart, fidelity)
    <Order total: 42.00 due: 42.00>
    >>> Order(ann, cart, fidelity)
    <Order total: 42.00 due: 39.90>
    >>> banana_cart = [LineItem('banana', 30, .5),
    ...                LineItem('apple', 10, 1.5)]
    >>> Order(joe, banana_cart, bulk_item)
    <Order total: 30.00 due: 28.50>
    >>> long_order = [LineItem(str(item_code), 1, 1.0)
    ...               for item_code in range(10)]
    >>> Order(joe, long_order, large_order)
    <Order total: 10.00 due: 9.30>
    >>> Order(joe, cart, large_order)
    <Order total: 42.00 due: 42.00>

# BEGIN STRATEGY_BEST_TESTS

    >>> Order(joe, long_order, best_promo)
    <Order total: 10.00 due: 9.30>
    >>> Order(joe, banana_cart, best_promo)
    <Order total: 30.00 due: 28.50>
    >>> Order(ann, cart, best_promo)
    <Order total: 42.00 due: 39.90>

# END STRATEGY_BEST_TESTS
"""

from collections import namedtuple

Customer = namedtuple('Customer', 'name fidelity')


class LineItem:

    def __init__(self, product, quantity, price):
        self.product = product
        self.quantity = quantity
        self.price = price

    def total(self):
        return self.price * self.quantity


class Order:  # the Context

    def __init__(self, customer, cart, promotion=None):
        self.customer = customer
        self.cart = list(cart)
        self.promotion = promotion

    def total(self):
        if not hasattr(self, '__total'):
            self.__total = sum(item.total() for item in self.cart)
        return self.__total

    def due(self):
        if self.promotion is None:
            discount = 0
        else:
            discount = self.promotion(self)
        return self.total() - discount

    def __repr__(self):
        fmt = '<Order total: {:.2f} due: {:.2f}>'
        return fmt.format(self.total(), self.due())

# BEGIN STRATEGY_BEST4

promos = []  # <1>

def promotion(promo_func):  # <2>
    promos.append(promo_func)
    return promo_func

@promotion  # <3>
def fidelity(order):
    """5% discount for customers with 1000 or more fidelity points"""
    return order.total() * .05 if order.customer.fidelity >= 1000 else 0

@promotion
def bulk_item(order):
    """10% discount for each LineItem with 20 or more units"""
    discount = 0
    for item in order.cart:
        if item.quantity >= 20:
            discount += item.total() * .1
    return discount

@promotion
def large_order(order):
    """7% discount for orders with 10 or more distinct items"""
    distinct_items = {item.product for item in order.cart}
    if len(distinct_items) >= 10:
        return order.total() * .07
    return 0

def best_promo(order):  # <4>
    """Select best discount available
    """
    return max(promo(order) for promo in promos)

(4)闭包

闭包指延伸了作用域的函数,关键是它能访问定义体之外定义的非全局变量。

Paste_Image.png

例如:审查make_averager创建的函数

>>> avg.__code__.co_varnames
('new_value', 'total')
>>> avg.__code__.co_freevars
('series',)
>>> avg.__closure__
(<cell at 0x107a44f78: list object at 0x107a91a48>,)
>>> avg.__closure__[0].cell_contents
[10, 11, 12]

(5)nonlocal声明

上述函数对数字、字符串、元组等不可变类型来说,只能读取,不能更新。因此,python 3 引入了nonlocal声明。

例如:计算移动平均值,不保存所有历史

def make_averager():
    count = 0
    total = 0
    
    def averager(new_value):
        nonlocal count, total
        count += 1
        total += new_value
        return total / count

    return averager

(6)实现一个简单的装饰器

例如:一个简单的装饰器,输出函数的运行时间

# clockdeco.py
import time

def clock(func):
    def clocked(*args):
        t0 = time.time()
        result = func(*args)
        elapsed = time.time() - t0
        name = func.__name__
        arg_str = ', '.join(repr(arg) for arg in args)
        print('[%0.8fs] %s(%s) -> %r' % (elapsed, name, arg_str, result))
        return result
    return clocked

例如:使用clock装饰器

# clockdeco_demo.py

import time
from clockdeco import clock

@clock
def snooze(seconds):
    time.sleep(seconds)

@clock
def factorial(n):
    return 1 if n < 2 else n*factorial(n-1)

if __name__=='__main__':
    print('*' * 40, 'Calling snooze(.123)')
    snooze(.123)
    print('*' * 40, 'Calling factorial(6)')
    print('6! =', factorial(6))

$ python3 clockdeco_demo.py
**************************************** Calling snooze(123)
[0.12405610s] snooze(.123) -> None
**************************************** Calling factorial(6)
[0.00000191s] factorial(1) -> 1
[0.00004911s] factorial(2) -> 2
[0.00008488s] factorial(3) -> 6
[0.00013208s] factorial(4) -> 24
[0.00019193s] factorial(5) -> 120
[0.00026107s] factorial(6) -> 720
6! = 720

上述实现的装饰器有几个缺点:不支持关键字参数,而且遮盖了被装饰函数的__name__和__doc__属性。下例使用functools.wraps装饰器把相关的属性从func复制到clocked中。

例如:改进后的clock装饰器

import time
import functools

def clock(func):
    @functools.wraps(func)
    def clocked(*args, **kwargs):
        t0 = time.time()
        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
        elapsed = time.time() - t0
        name = func.__name__
        arg_lst = []
        if args:
            arg_lst.append(', '.join(repr(arg) for arg in args))
        if kwargs:
            pairs = ['%s=%r' % (k, w) for k, w in sorted(kwargs.items())]
            arg_lst.append(', '.join(pairs))
        arg_str = ', '.join(arg_lst)
        print('[%0.8fs] %s(%s) -> %r ' % (elapsed, name, arg_str, result))
        return result
    return clocked

(7)标准库中的装饰器

使用functools.lru_cache做备忘

functools.lru_cache实现了备忘功能,这是一项优化技术,它把耗时的函数结果保存起来,避免传入相同的参数时重复计算。

例如:生成第n个斐波那契数列,递归方式非常耗时

import functools
from clockdeco import clock

@functools.lru_cache() 
@clock 
def fibonacci(n):
    if n < 2:
        return n
    return fibonacci(n-2) + fibonacci(n-1)

if __name__=='__main__':
    print(fibonacci(6))

单分配泛函数

使用@singledispatch装饰的普通函数会变成泛函数。

例如

r"""
htmlize(): generic function example

# BEGIN HTMLIZE_DEMO

>>> htmlize({1, 2, 3})  # <1>
'<pre>{1, 2, 3}</pre>'
>>> htmlize(abs)
'<pre><built-in function abs></pre>'
>>> htmlize('Heimlich & Co.n- a game')  # <2>
'<p>Heimlich & Co.<br>n- a game</p>'
>>> htmlize(42)  # <3>
'<pre>42 (0x2a)</pre>'
>>> print(htmlize(['alpha', 66, {3, 2, 1}]))  # <4>
<ul>
<li><p>alpha</p></li>
<li><pre>66 (0x42)</pre></li>
<li><pre>{1, 2, 3}</pre></li>
</ul>

# END HTMLIZE_DEMO
"""

# BEGIN HTMLIZE

from functools import singledispatch
from collections import abc
import numbers
import html

@singledispatch  # <1>
def htmlize(obj):
    content = html.escape(repr(obj))
    return '<pre>{}</pre>'.format(content)

@htmlize.register(str)  # <2>
def _(text):            # <3>
    content = html.escape(text).replace('n', '<br>n')
    return '<p>{0}</p>'.format(content)

@htmlize.register(numbers.Integral)  # <4>
def _(n):
    return '<pre>{0} (0x{0:x})</pre>'.format(n)

@htmlize.register(tuple)  # <5>
@htmlize.register(abc.MutableSequence)
def _(seq):
    inner = '</li>n<li>'.join(htmlize(item) for item in seq)
    return '<ul>n<li>' + inner + '</li>n</ul>'

(8)叠放装饰器

@d1
@d2
def f():
    print('f')

等同于

def f():
    print('f')
    
f = d1(d2(f))

(9)参数化装饰器

一个参数化的注册装饰器

我们为它提供一个可选的active参数,设为False时,不注册被装饰的函数。

# BEGIN REGISTRATION_PARAM

registry = set()  # <1>

def register(active=True):  # <2>
    def decorate(func):  # <3>
        print('running register(active=%s)->decorate(%s)'
              % (active, func))
        if active:   # <4>
            registry.add(func)
        else:
            registry.discard(func)  # <5>

        return func  # <6>
    return decorate  # <7>

@register(active=False)  # <8>
def f1():
    print('running f1()')

@register()  # <9>
def f2():
    print('running f2()')

def f3():
    print('running f3()')
>>> from registration_param import *
running register(active=False)->decorate(<function f1 at 0x10073c1e0>)
running register(active=True)->decorate(<function f2 at 0x10073c268>)
>>> registry #
{<function f2 at 0x10073c268>}
>>> register()(f3) #
running register(active=True)->decorate(<function f3 at 0x10073c158>)
<function f3 at 0x10073c158>
>>> registry #
{<function f3 at 0x10073c158>, <function f2 at 0x10073c268>}
>>> register(active=False)(f2) #
running register(active=False)->decorate(<function f2 at 0x10073c268>)
<function f2 at 0x10073c268>
>>> registry #
{<function f3 at 0x10073c158>}

参数化clock装饰器

例如:clockdeco_param.py模块:参数化clock装饰器

# clockdeco_param.py

"""
>>> snooze(.1)  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
[0.101...s] snooze(0.1) -> None
>>> clock('{name}: {elapsed}')(time.sleep)(.2)  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
sleep: 0.20...
>>> clock('{name}({args}) dt={elapsed:0.3f}s')(time.sleep)(.2)
sleep(0.2) dt=0.201s
"""

# BEGIN CLOCKDECO_CLS
import time

DEFAULT_FMT = '[{elapsed:0.8f}s] {name}({args}) -> {result}'

class clock:

    def __init__(self, fmt=DEFAULT_FMT):
        self.fmt = fmt

    def __call__(self, func):
        def clocked(*_args):
            t0 = time.time()
            _result = func(*_args)
            elapsed = time.time() - t0
            name = func.__name__
            args = ', '.join(repr(arg) for arg in _args)
            result = repr(_result)
            print(self.fmt.format(**locals()))
            return _result
        return clocked

if __name__ == '__main__':

    @clock()
    def snooze(seconds):
        time.sleep(seconds)

    for i in range(3):
        snooze(.123)
import time
from clockdeco_param import clock

@clock('{name}: {elapsed}s')
def snooze(seconds):
    time.sleep(seconds)

for i in range(3):
    snooze(.123)

$ python3 clockdeco_param_demo1.py
snooze: 0.12414693832397461s
snooze: 0.1241159439086914s
snooze: 0.12412118911743164s
import time
from clockdeco_param import clock

@clock('{name}({args}) dt={elapsed:0.3f}s')
def snooze(seconds):
    time.sleep(seconds)

for i in range(3):
    snooze(.123)

$ python3 clockdeco_param_demo2.py
snooze(0.123) dt=0.124s
snooze(0.123) dt=0.124s
snooze(0.123) dt=0.124s

面向对象惯用法:对象引用、可变性和垃圾回收

(1)变量不是盒子

Paste_Image.png

(2)默认做浅复制

复制列表(或多数内置的可变集合)最简单的方式是使用内置的类型构造方法。

>>> l1 = [3, [55, 44], (7, 8, 9)]
>>> l2 = list(l1)
>>> l2
[3, [55, 44], (7, 8, 9)]
>>> l2 == l1
True
>>> l2 is l1
False

copy模块提供的deepcopy和copy函数能为任意对象做深复制和浅复制。

(3)函数的参数作为引用时

不要用可变类型作为参数的默认值

(4)del和垃圾回收

del语句删除名称,而不是对象。

(5)弱引用

WeakValueDictionary简介

WeakValueDictionary类实现的是一种可变映射,里面的值是对象的弱引用,它经常用于缓存。

面向对象惯用法:序列的修改、散列和切片

(1)Vector类第3版:动态存取属性

属性查找失败后,解释器会调用__getattr__方法。简单来说,对my_obj.x表达式,Python会检查my_obj实例有没有名为x的属性;如果没有,到类(my_obj.__class__)中查找;如果还没有,顺着继承树继续查找。如果依旧找不到,调用my_obj所属类中定义的__getattr__方法,传入self和属性名称的字符串形式(如'x')。

例如:vector_v3.py的部分代码

shortcut_names = 'xyzt'

    def __getattr__(self, name):
        cls = type(self)  # <1>
        if len(name) == 1:  # <2>
            pos = cls.shortcut_names.find(name)  # <3>
            if 0 <= pos < len(self._components):  # <4>
                return self._components[pos]
        msg = '{.__name__!r} object has no attribute {!r}'  # <5>
        raise AttributeError(msg.format(cls, name))

改写__setattr__方法,例如

def __setattr__(self, name, value):
        cls = type(self)
        if len(name) == 1:  # <1>
            if name in cls.shortcut_names:  # <2>
                error = 'readonly attribute {attr_name!r}'
            elif name.islower():  # <3>
                error = "can't set attributes 'a' to 'z' in {cls_name!r}"
            else:
                error = ''  # <4>
            if error:  # <5>
                msg = error.format(cls_name=cls.__name__, attr_name=name)
                raise AttributeError(msg)
        super().__setattr__(name, value)  # <6>

(2)Vecotr类第4版:散列和快速等值测试

reduce()函数的第一个参数是接受两个参数的函数,第二个参数是一个可迭代的对象。假如有个接受两个参数的fn函数和一个list列表,调用reduce(fn, list)时,fn会应用到第一队元素上,生成第一个结果r1,然后fn会应用到r1和下一个元素上,直到最后一个元素,返回最后得到的结果rN。

例如:使用zip和all函数实现Vector.__eq__方法

def __eq__(self, other):
    return len(self) == len(other) and all(a == b for a, b in zip(self, other))

控制流程:可迭代的对象、迭代器和生成器

迭代是数据处理的基石。扫描内存中放不下的数据集时,我们要找到一种惰性获取数据项的方式,即按需一次获取一个数据项,这就是迭代器模式。

(1)Sentence类第1版:单词序列

序列可以迭代的原因:iter函数

内置的iter函数有以下作用。

  • 检查对象是否实现__iter__方法,如果实现了就调用它,获取一个迭代器
  • 如果没有实现__iter__方法,但是实现了__getitem__方法,Python会创建一个迭代器,尝试按顺序获取元素
  • 如果尝试失败,Python抛出TypeError异常

例如

>>> class Foo:
...     def __iter__(self):
...         pass
...
>>> from collections import abc
>>> issubclass(Foo, abc.Iterable)
True
>>> f = Foo()
>>> isinstance(f, abc.Iterable)
True

(2)可迭代的对象与迭代器的对比

如果对象实现了能返回迭代器的__iter__方法,那么对象就是可迭代的。序列都可以迭代,实现了__getitem__方法,而且其参数是从零开始的索引,这种对象也可以迭代。Python从可迭代的对象中获取迭代器。

字符串'ABC'是可迭代的对象,背后是有迭代器的,只不过我们看不到。

>>> s = 'ABC'
>>> for char in s:
...       print(char)
...
A
B
C

如果没有for语句,不得不使用while循环模拟。

>>> s = 'ABC'
>>> it = iter(s) #
>>> while True:
...     try:
...         print(next(it)) #
...     except StopIteration: #
...         del it #
...         break #
...
A
B
C

标准的迭代器接口有两个方法

  • __next__ —— 返回下一个可用的元素,如果没有元素了,抛出StopIteration异常
  • __iter__ —— 返回self,以便在应该使用可迭代对象的地方使用迭代器,例如在for循环中
Paste_Image.png

迭代器是这样的对象:实现了无参数的__next__方法,返回序列中的下一个元素;如果没有元素了,那么抛出StopIteration异常。Python中的迭代器还实现了__iter__方法,因此迭代器也可以迭代。

(3)Sentence类第2版:典型的迭代器

import re
import reprlib

RE_WORD = re.compile('w+')

class Sentence:

    def __init__(self, text):
        self.text = text
        self.words = RE_WORD.findall(text)

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'Sentence(%s)' % reprlib.repr(self.text)

    def __iter__(self):  # <1>
        return SentenceIterator(self.words)  # <2>


class SentenceIterator:

    def __init__(self, words):
        self.words = words  # <3>
        self.index = 0  # <4>

    def __next__(self):
        try:
            word = self.words[self.index]  # <5>
        except IndexError:
            raise StopIteration()  # <6>
        self.index += 1  # <7>
        return word  # <8>

    def __iter__(self):  # <9>
        return self

(4)Sentence类第3版:生成器函数

符合Python习惯的方法是,用生成器函数代替SentenceIterator类。

"""
Sentence: iterate over words using a generator function
"""

import re
import reprlib

RE_WORD = re.compile('w+')

class Sentence:

    def __init__(self, text):
        self.text = text
        self.words = RE_WORD.findall(text)

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'Sentence(%s)' % reprlib.repr(self.text)

    def __iter__(self):
        for word in self.words:  # <1>
            yield word  # <2>
        return

生成器函数的工作原理

只要Python函数的定义体中有yield关键字,该函数就是生成器函数。

>>> def gen_123():
...     yield 1
...     yield 2
...     yield 3
...
>>> for i in gen_123(): 
...     print(i)
1
2
3
>>> g = gen_123()
>>> next(g)
1
>>> next(g)
2
>>> next(g)
3
>>> next(g)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
StopIteration

例如:运行时打印消息的生成器函数

>>> def gen_AB(): 
...     print('start')
...     yield 'A' 
...     print('continue')
...     yield 'B' 
...     print('end.') 
...
>>> for c in gen_AB(): 
...     print('-->', c) 
...
start
--> A
continue
--> B
end.

(5)Sentence类第4版:惰性实现

例如:在生成器函数中调用re.finditer生成器函数,实现Sentence类

"""
Sentence: iterate over words using a generator function
"""

import re
import reprlib

RE_WORD = re.compile('w+')

class Sentence:

    def __init__(self, text):
        self.text = text  # <1>

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'Sentence(%s)' % reprlib.repr(self.text)

    def __iter__(self):
        for match in RE_WORD.finditer(self.text):  # <2>
            yield match.group() 

(6)Sentence类第5版:生成器表达式

例如:使用生成器表达式实现Sentence类

"""
Sentence: iterate over words using a generator expression
"""

import re
import reprlib

RE_WORD = re.compile('w+')

class Sentence:

    def __init__(self, text):
        self.text = text

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'Sentence(%s)' % reprlib.repr(self.text)

    def __iter__(self):
        return (match.group() for match in RE_WORD.finditer(self.text))

(7)另一个示例:等差数列生成器

典型的迭代器模式作用很简单——遍历数据结构。

"""
Arithmetic progression class

    >>> ap = ArithmeticProgression(0, 1, 3)
    >>> list(ap)
    [0, 1, 2]
    >>> ap = ArithmeticProgression(1, .5, 3)
    >>> list(ap)
    [1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5]
    >>> ap = ArithmeticProgression(0, 1/3, 1)
    >>> list(ap)
    [0.0, 0.3333333333333333, 0.6666666666666666]
    >>> from fractions import Fraction
    >>> ap = ArithmeticProgression(0, Fraction(1, 3), 1)
    >>> list(ap)
    [Fraction(0, 1), Fraction(1, 3), Fraction(2, 3)]
    >>> from decimal import Decimal
    >>> ap = ArithmeticProgression(0, Decimal('.1'), .3)
    >>> list(ap)
    [Decimal('0.0'), Decimal('0.1'), Decimal('0.2')]
"""

class ArithmeticProgression:
    def __init__(self, begin, step, end=None):  
        self.begin = begin
        self.step = step
        self.end = end  # None -> "infinite" series

    def __iter__(self):
        result = type(self.begin + self.step)(self.begin)  
        forever = self.end is None  
        index = 0
        while forever or result < self.end: 
            yield result 
            index += 1
            result = self.begin + self.step * index 

利用itertools模块生成等差数列

下例返回一个生成器,因此它与其他生成器函数一样,也是生成器工厂函数。

import itertools

def aritprog_gen(begin, step, end=None):
    first = type(begin + step)(begin)
    ap_gen = itertools.count(first, step)
    if end is not None:
        ap_gen = itertools.takewhile(lambda n: n < end, ap_gen)
    return ap_gen

(8)标准库中的生成器函数

第一组是用于过滤的生成器函数:从输入的可迭代对象中产出元素的子集,而且不修改元素本身。

Paste_Image.png
Paste_Image.png
>>> def vowel(c):
...     return c.lower() in 'aeiou'
...
>>> list(filter(vowel, 'Aardvark'))
['A', 'a', 'a']
>>> import itertools
>>> list(itertools.filterfalse(vowel, 'Aardvark'))
['r', 'd', 'v', 'r', 'k']
>>> list(itertools.dropwhile(vowel, 'Aardvark'))
['r', 'd', 'v', 'a', 'r', 'k']
>>> list(itertools.takewhile(vowel, 'Aardvark'))
['A', 'a']
>>> list(itertools.compress('Aardvark', (1,0,1,1,0,1)))
['A', 'r', 'd', 'a']
>>> list(itertools.islice('Aardvark', 4))
['A', 'a', 'r', 'd']
>>> list(itertools.islice('Aardvark', 4, 7))
['v', 'a', 'r']
>>> list(itertools.islice('Aardvark', 1, 7, 2))
['a', 'd', 'a']

第二组是用于映射的生成器函数:在输入的单个可迭代对象中的各个元素上做计算,然后返回结果

Paste_Image.png
>>> sample = [5, 4, 2, 8, 7, 6, 3, 0, 9, 1]
>>> import itertools
>>> list(itertools.accumulate(sample)) #
[5, 9, 11, 19, 26, 32, 35, 35, 44, 45]
>>> list(itertools.accumulate(sample, min)) #
[5, 4, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0, 0]
>>> list(itertools.accumulate(sample, max)) #
[5, 5, 5, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9]
>>> import operator
>>> list(itertools.accumulate(sample, operator.mul)) #
[5, 20, 40, 320, 2240, 13440, 40320, 0, 0, 0]
>>> list(itertools.accumulate(range(1, 11), operator.mul))
[1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800]

>>> list(enumerate('albatroz', 1)) #
[(1, 'a'), (2, 'l'), (3, 'b'), (4, 'a'), (5, 't'), (6, 'r'), (7, 'o'), (8, 'z')]
>>> import operator
>>> list(map(operator.mul, range(11), range(11))) #
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
>>> list(map(operator.mul, range(11), [2, 4, 8])) #
[0, 4, 16]
>>> list(map(lambda a, b: (a, b), range(11), [2, 4, 8]))
[(0, 2), (1, 4), (2, 8)]
>>> import itertools
>>> list(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, enumerate('albatroz', 1))) #
['a', 'll', 'bbb', 'aaaa', 'ttttt', 'rrrrrr', 'ooooooo', 'zzzzzzzz']
>>> sample = [5, 4, 2, 8, 7, 6, 3, 0, 9, 1]
>>> list(itertools.starmap(lambda a, b: b/a,
... enumerate(itertools.accumulate(sample), 1))) #
[5.0, 4.5, 3.6666666666666665, 4.75, 5.2, 5.333333333333333,
5.0, 4.375, 4.888888888888889, 4.5]

第三组是用于合并的生成器函数,这些函数都从输入的多个可迭代对象中产出元素。

Paste_Image.png
>>> list(itertools.chain('ABC', range(2))) #
['A', 'B', 'C', 0, 1]
>>> list(itertools.chain(enumerate('ABC'))) #
[(0, 'A'), (1, 'B'), (2, 'C')]
>>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable(enumerate('ABC'))) #
[0, 'A', 1, 'B', 2, 'C']
>>> list(zip('ABC', range(5))) #
[('A', 0), ('B', 1), ('C', 2)]
>>> list(zip('ABC', range(5), [10, 20, 30, 40])) #
[('A', 0, 10), ('B', 1, 20), ('C', 2, 30)]
>>> list(itertools.zip_longest('ABC', range(5))) #
[('A', 0), ('B', 1), ('C', 2), (None, 3), (None, 4)]
>>> list(itertools.zip_longest('ABC', range(5), fillvalue='?')) #
[('A', 0), ('B', 1), ('C', 2), ('?', 3), ('?', 4)]

>>> list(itertools.product('ABC', range(2))) #
[('A', 0), ('A', 1), ('B', 0), ('B', 1), ('C', 0), ('C', 1)]
>>> suits = 'spades hearts diamonds clubs'.split()
>>> list(itertools.product('AK', suits)) #
[('A', 'spades'), ('A', 'hearts'), ('A', 'diamonds'), ('A', 'clubs'),
('K', 'spades'), ('K', 'hearts'), ('K', 'diamonds'), ('K', 'clubs')]
>>> list(itertools.product('ABC')) #
[('A',), ('B',), ('C',)]
>>> list(itertools.product('ABC', repeat=2)) #
[('A', 'A'), ('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'A'), ('B', 'B'),
('B', 'C'), ('C', 'A'), ('C', 'B'), ('C', 'C')]
>>> list(itertools.product(range(2), repeat=3))
[(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0),
(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)]
>>> rows = itertools.product('AB', range(2), repeat=2)
>>> for row in rows: print(row)
...
('A', 0, 'A', 0)
('A', 0, 'A', 1)
('A', 0, 'B', 0)
('A', 0, 'B', 1)
('A', 1, 'A', 0)
('A', 1, 'A', 1)
('A', 1, 'B', 0)
('A', 1, 'B', 1)
('B', 0, 'A', 0)
('B', 0, 'A', 1)
('B', 0, 'B', 0)
('B', 0, 'B', 1)
('B', 1, 'A', 0)
('B', 1, 'A', 1)
('B', 1, 'B', 0)
('B', 1, 'B', 1)

第四组生成器函数会从一个元素中产出多个值,扩展输入的可迭代对象。

Paste_Image.png
Paste_Image.png
>>> ct = itertools.count() #
>>> next(ct) #
0
>>> next(ct), next(ct), next(ct) #
(1, 2, 3)
>>> list(itertools.islice(itertools.count(1, .3), 3)) #
[1, 1.3, 1.6]
>>> cy = itertools.cycle('ABC') #
>>> next(cy)
'A'
>>> list(itertools.islice(cy, 7)) #
['B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B']
>>> rp = itertools.repeat(7) #
>>> next(rp), next(rp)
(7, 7)
>>> list(itertools.repeat(8, 4)) #
[8, 8, 8, 8]
>>> list(map(operator.mul, range(11), itertools.repeat(5))) #
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50]

>>> list(itertools.combinations('ABC', 2)) #
[('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'C')]
>>> list(itertools.combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) #
[('A', 'A'), ('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'B'), ('B', 'C'), ('C', 'C')]
>>> list(itertools.permutations('ABC', 2)) #
[('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'A'), ('B', 'C'), ('C', 'A'), ('C', 'B')]
>>> list(itertools.product('ABC', repeat=2)) #
[('A', 'A'), ('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'A'), ('B', 'B'), ('B', 'C'),
('C', 'A'), ('C', 'B'), ('C', 'C')]

第五组的生成器函数用于产出输入的可迭代对象中的全部元素,不过会以某种方式重新排列

Paste_Image.png
Paste_Image.png
>>> list(itertools.groupby('LLLLAAGGG')) #
[('L', <itertools._grouper object at 0x102227cc0>),
('A', <itertools._grouper object at 0x102227b38>),
('G', <itertools._grouper object at 0x102227b70>)]
>>> for char, group in itertools.groupby('LLLLAAAGG'): #
...     print(char, '->', list(group))
...
L -> ['L', 'L', 'L', 'L']
A -> ['A', 'A',]
G -> ['G', 'G', 'G']
>>> animals = ['duck', 'eagle', 'rat', 'giraffe', 'bear',
... 'bat', 'dolphin', 'shark', 'lion']
>>> animals.sort(key=len) #
>>> animals
['rat', 'bat', 'duck', 'bear', 'lion', 'eagle', 'shark',
'giraffe', 'dolphin']
>>> for length, group in itertools.groupby(animals, len): #
...     print(length, '->', list(group))
...
3 -> ['rat', 'bat']
4 -> ['duck', 'bear', 'lion']
5 -> ['eagle', 'shark']
7 -> ['giraffe', 'dolphin']
>>> for length, group in itertools.groupby(reversed(animals), len): #
...     print(length, '->', list(group))
...
7 -> ['dolphin', 'giraffe']
5 -> ['shark', 'eagle']
4 -> ['lion', 'bear', 'duck']
3 -> ['bat', 'rat']

>>> list(itertools.tee('ABC'))
[<itertools._tee object at 0x10222abc8>, <itertools._tee object at 0x10222ac08>]
>>> g1, g2 = itertools.tee('ABC')
>>> next(g1)
'A'
>>> next(g2)
'A'
>>> next(g2)
'B'
>>> list(g1)
['B', 'C']
>>> list(g2)
['C']
>>> list(zip(*itertools.tee('ABC')))
[('A', 'A'), ('B', 'B'), ('C', 'C')]

(9)Python 3.3中新出现的句法:yield from

如果生成器函数需要产出另一个生成器生成的值,传统的解决方法是使用嵌套的for循环。

例如,实现自己的chain生成器

>>> def chain(*iterables):
...     for it in iterables:
...         for i in it:
...             yield i
...
>>> s = 'ABC'
>>> t = tuple(range(3))
>>> list(chain(s, t))
['A', 'B', 'C', 0, 1, 2]

可以用下列方式替代实现。

>>> def chain(*iterables):
...     for i in iterables:
...         yield from i
...
>>> list(chain(s, t))
['A', 'B', 'C', 0, 1, 2]

这里可以看到,yield from i 完全代替了内层的for循环。

(11)可迭代的归约函数

Paste_Image.png
Paste_Image.png
>>> all([1, 2, 3])
True
>>> all([1, 0, 3])
False
>>> all([])
True
>>> any([1, 2, 3])
True
>>> any([1, 0, 3])
True
>>> any([0, 0.0])
False
>>> any([])
False
>>> g = (n for n in [0, 0.0, 7, 8])
>>> any(g)
True
>>> next(g)
8

控制流程:协程

从句法上看,协程与生成器类似,都是定义体中包含yield关键字的函数。不管数据如何流动,yield都是一种流程控制工具,使用它可以实现协作式多任务;协程可以把控制器让步给中心调度程序,从而激活其他的协程。

(1)用作协程的生成器的基本行为

例如:可能是协程最简单的使用演示

>>> def simple_coroutine():
...     print('-> coroutine started')
...     x = yield
...     print('-> coroutine received:', x)
...
>>> my_coro = simple_coroutine()
>>> my_coro 
<generator object simple_coroutine at 0x100c2be10>
>>> next(my_coro) 
-> coroutine started
>>> my_coro.send(42) 
-> coroutine received: 42
Traceback (most recent call last): 
...
StopIteration

协程可以身处四个状态中的一个。

  • 'GEN_CREATED' —— 等待开始执行
  • 'GEN_RUNNING' —— 解释器正在执行
  • 'GEN_SUSPENDED' —— 在yield表达式处暂停
  • 'GEN_CLOSED' —— 执行结束

仅当协程处于暂停状态时才能调用send方法。不过,如果协程还没激活,情况就不同了。因此,始终要调用next(my_coro)激活协程——也可以调用my_coro.send(None),效果一样。最先调用next(my_coro)函数这一步通常称为“预激”(prime)协程(即,让协程向前执行到第一个yield表达式,准备好作为活跃的协程使用)。

例如:产出两个值的协程

>>> def simple_coro2(a):
...     print('-> Started: a =', a)
...     b = yield a
...     print('-> Received: b =', b)
...     c = yield a + b
...     print('-> Received: c =', c)
...
>>> my_coro2 = simple_coro2(14)
>>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
>>> getgeneratorstate(my_coro2)
'GEN_CREATED'
>>> next(my_coro2)
-> Started: a = 14
14
>>> getgeneratorstate(my_coro2)
'GEN_SUSPENDED'
>>> my_coro2.send(28)
-> Received: b = 28
42
>>> my_coro2.send(99)
-> Received: c = 99
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration
>>> getgeneratorstate(my_coro2)
'GEN_CLOSED'
Paste_Image.png

(2)使用协程计算移动平均值

例如:定义一个计算移动平均值的协程

"""
A coroutine to compute a running average

    >>> coro_avg = averager()  # <1>
    >>> next(coro_avg)  # <2>
    >>> coro_avg.send(10)  # <3>
    10.0
    >>> coro_avg.send(30)
    20.0
    >>> coro_avg.send(5)
    15.0
"""

def averager():
    total = 0.0
    count = 0
    average = None
    while True:  # <1>
        term = yield average  # <2>
        total += term
        count += 1
        average = total/count

(3)预激协程的装饰器

如果不预激,那么协程没什么用。调用my_coro.send(x)之前,记住一定要调用next(my_coro)。为了简化协程的用法,有时会使用一个预激装饰器。

from functools import wraps

def coroutine(func):
    """Decorator: primes `func` by advancing to first `yield`"""
    @wraps(func)
    def primer(*args,**kwargs):  # <1>
        gen = func(*args,**kwargs)  # <2>
        next(gen)  # <3>
        return gen  # <4>
    return primer
"""
A coroutine to compute a running average

    >>> coro_avg = averager() 
    >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
    >>> getgeneratorstate(coro_avg) 
    'GEN_SUSPENDED'
    >>> coro_avg.send(10) 
    10.0
    >>> coro_avg.send(30)
    20.0
    >>> coro_avg.send(5)
    15.0

"""

from coroutil import coroutine 

@coroutine 
def averager(): 
    total = 0.0
    count = 0
    average = None
    while True:
        term = yield average
        total += term
        count += 1
        average = total/count

(4)终止协程和异常处理

例如:未处理的异常会导致协程终止

>>> from coroaverager1 import averager
>>> coro_avg = averager()
>>> coro_avg.send(40)
40.0
>>> coro_avg.send(50)
45.0
>>> coro_avg.send('spam') #
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +=: 'float' and 'str'
>>> coro_avg.send(60) #
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration

这里暗示了终止协程的一种方式:发送某个哨符值,让协程退出。内置的None和Ellipsis等常量经常用作哨符值。

从Python 2.5 开始,客户代码可以在生成器对象上调用两个方法,显式地把异常发给协程。这两个方法是throw和close。

  • generator.throw(exc_type[, exc_value[, traceback]]) —— 致使生成器在暂停的yield表达式处抛出指定的异常。
  • generator.close() —— 致使生成器在暂停的yield表达式处抛出GeneratorExit异常。

下面说明如何使用close和throw方法控制协程。

"""
Coroutine closing demonstration::

# BEGIN DEMO_CORO_EXC_1
    >>> exc_coro = demo_exc_handling()
    >>> next(exc_coro)
    -> coroutine started
    >>> exc_coro.send(11)
    -> coroutine received: 11
    >>> exc_coro.send(22)
    -> coroutine received: 22
    >>> exc_coro.close()
    >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
    >>> getgeneratorstate(exc_coro)
    'GEN_CLOSED'

# END DEMO_CORO_EXC_1

Coroutine handling exception::

# BEGIN DEMO_CORO_EXC_2
    >>> exc_coro = demo_exc_handling()
    >>> next(exc_coro)
    -> coroutine started
    >>> exc_coro.send(11)
    -> coroutine received: 11
    >>> exc_coro.throw(DemoException)
    *** DemoException handled. Continuing...
    >>> getgeneratorstate(exc_coro)
    'GEN_SUSPENDED'

# END DEMO_CORO_EXC_2

Coroutine not handling exception::

# BEGIN DEMO_CORO_EXC_3
    >>> exc_coro = demo_exc_handling()
    >>> next(exc_coro)
    -> coroutine started
    >>> exc_coro.send(11)
    -> coroutine received: 11
    >>> exc_coro.throw(ZeroDivisionError)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
    ZeroDivisionError
    >>> getgeneratorstate(exc_coro)
    'GEN_CLOSED'

# END DEMO_CORO_EXC_3
"""

class DemoException(Exception):
    """An exception type for the demonstration."""

def demo_exc_handling():
    print('-> coroutine started')
    while True:
        try:
            x = yield
        except DemoException: 
            print('*** DemoException handled. Continuing...')
        else:  
            print('-> coroutine received: {!r}'.format(x))
    raise RuntimeError('This line should never run.')

(5)让协程返回值

例如:定义一个求平均值的协程,让它返回一个结果

"""
A coroutine to compute a running average.

Testing ``averager`` by itself::

# BEGIN RETURNING_AVERAGER_DEMO1

    >>> coro_avg = averager()
    >>> next(coro_avg)
    >>> coro_avg.send(10)  # <1>
    >>> coro_avg.send(30)
    >>> coro_avg.send(6.5)
    >>> coro_avg.send(None)  # <2>
    Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
    StopIteration: Result(count=3, average=15.5)

# END RETURNING_AVERAGER_DEMO1

Catching `StopIteration` to extract the value returned by
the coroutine::

# BEGIN RETURNING_AVERAGER_DEMO2

    >>> coro_avg = averager()
    >>> next(coro_avg)
    >>> coro_avg.send(10)
    >>> coro_avg.send(30)
    >>> coro_avg.send(6.5)
    >>> try:
    ...     coro_avg.send(None)
    ... except StopIteration as exc:
    ...     result = exc.value
    ...
    >>> result
    Result(count=3, average=15.5)

# END RETURNING_AVERAGER_DEMO2

"""

from collections import namedtuple

Result = namedtuple('Result', 'count average')


def averager():
    total = 0.0
    count = 0
    average = None
    while True:
        term = yield
        if term is None:
            break  # <1>
        total += term
        count += 1
        average = total/count
    return Result(count, average)

(6)使用yield from

例如

>>> def gen():
...     for c in 'AB':
...         yield c
...     for i in range(1, 3):
...         yield i
...
>>> list(gen())
['A', 'B', 1, 2]

可以改写为

>>> def gen():
...     yield from 'AB'
...     yield from range(1, 3)
...
>>> list(gen())
['A', 'B', 1, 2]

yield from x 表达式对x对象所做的第一件事是,调用iter(x),从中获取迭代器。因此,x可以使任何可迭代对象。

yield from 的主要功能是打开双向通道,把最外层的调用方与最内层的子生成器连接起来,这样二者可以直接发送和产出值,还可以直接传入异常,而不用在位于中间的协程中添加大量处理异常的样板代码。

术语

  • 委派生成器(delegating generator) —— 包含yield from <iterable> 表达式的生成器函数
  • 子生成器(subgenerator) —— 从yield from 表达式中<iterable>部分获取的生成器
  • 调用方(caller) —— 指代调用委派生成器的客户端代码
Paste_Image.png

使用yield from 计算平均值并输出统计报告

"""
A coroutine to compute a running average.

Testing ``averager`` by itself::

    >>> coro_avg = averager()
    >>> next(coro_avg)
    >>> coro_avg.send(10)
    >>> coro_avg.send(30)
    >>> coro_avg.send(6.5)
    >>> coro_avg.send(None)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
    StopIteration: Result(count=3, average=15.5)


Driving it with ``yield from``::

    >>> def summarize(results):
    ...     while True:
    ...         result = yield from averager()
    ...         results.append(result)
    ...
    >>> results = []
    >>> summary = summarize(results)
    >>> next(summary)
    >>> for height in data['girls;m']:
    ...     summary.send(height)
    ...
    >>> summary.send(None)
    >>> for height in data['boys;m']:
    ...     summary.send(height)
    ...
    >>> summary.send(None)
    >>> results == [
    ...     Result(count=10, average=1.4279999999999997),
    ...     Result(count=9, average=1.3888888888888888)
    ... ]
    True

"""

# BEGIN YIELD_FROM_AVERAGER
from collections import namedtuple

Result = namedtuple('Result', 'count average')


# the subgenerator
def averager():  # <1>
    total = 0.0
    count = 0
    average = None
    while True:
        term = yield  # <2>
        if term is None:  # <3>
            break
        total += term
        count += 1
        average = total/count
    return Result(count, average)  # <4>


# the delegating generator
def grouper(results, key):  # <5>
    while True:  # <6>
        results[key] = yield from averager()  # <7>


# the client code, a.k.a. the caller
def main(data):  # <8>
    results = {}
    for key, values in data.items():
        group = grouper(results, key)  # <9>
        next(group)  # <10>
        for value in values:
            group.send(value)  # <11>
        group.send(None)  # important! <12>

    # print(results)  # uncomment to debug
    report(results)


# output report
def report(results):
    for key, result in sorted(results.items()):
        group, unit = key.split(';')
        print('{:2} {:5} averaging {:.2f}{}'.format(
              result.count, group, result.average, unit))


data = {
    'girls;kg':
        [40.9, 38.5, 44.3, 42.2, 45.2, 41.7, 44.5, 38.0, 40.6, 44.5],
    'girls;m':
        [1.6, 1.51, 1.4, 1.3, 1.41, 1.39, 1.33, 1.46, 1.45, 1.43],
    'boys;kg':
        [39.0, 40.8, 43.2, 40.8, 43.1, 38.6, 41.4, 40.6, 36.3],
    'boys;m':
        [1.38, 1.5, 1.32, 1.25, 1.37, 1.48, 1.25, 1.49, 1.46],
}


if __name__ == '__main__':
    main(data)

委派生成器相当于管道,可以把任意数量个

版权声明:本文来源简书,感谢博主原创文章,遵循 CC 4.0 by-sa 版权协议,转载请附上原文出处链接和本声明。
原文链接:https://www.jianshu.com/p/f94e22cf35e5
站方申明:本站部分内容来自社区用户分享,若涉及侵权,请联系站方删除。
  • 发表于 2020-01-12 13:09:54
  • 阅读 ( 1250 )
  • 分类:

0 条评论

请先 登录 后评论

官方社群

GO教程

猜你喜欢